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淺談「假新聞」

最近上課時學到一個新單字「positionality」，讓我想到當前社群媒體上，不停看到的「fake news」——假新聞。

簡言之，「positionality」(位置性) 被定義為於種族、階級、性別、性取向以及能力等狀態中，創造你身分的社會與政治背景。位置性還描述了你的身分如何影響你對世界的理解與看法，以及潛在的偏見。

positionality 位置性；定位
https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/3390885/
https://www.lexico.com/definition/positionality

以下是我對「positionality」與 「fake news」的些許觀點：

“Fake news” has permeated all facets of life, ranging from social media interaction to presidential elections. Fake news can be defined as “fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organizational process or intent” (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094). The creators and outlets of fake news do not ensure the accuracy and credibility of information, but rather disseminate misinformation or disinformation for purposes ranging from personal amusement to creating deceptions to achieve political aims. At times, fake news is created and disseminated by state or non-state actors using social media accounts and networks of bots designed to hijack feed algorithms of platforms such as Twitter or Facebook (Prier, 2017, p. 54). In the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, Facebook estimated that up to 60 million bots were used to post political content. Some of the same bots were then used in an attempt to influence the 2017 French election (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095). Such campaigns can be understood as a form of information warfare, a comprehensive attempt to control and influence every facet of the information supply chain, thereby influencing public opinion and behaviors. (Prier, 2017, p. 54). Often, fake news is not directly created by actors that seek to manipulate but by journalists or content creators whose content favors or aligns with the narratives of these actors (Doshi, 2020).

從社群媒體的互動到總統選舉，「假新聞」（fake news）已滲透至生活的各個層面。假新聞可被定義為「在形式上而非組織過程或意圖上，模仿新聞媒體內容所捏造的資訊」（Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094）。無論是出於個人愛好或為達政治目的而有所欺瞞，假新聞的製造者與傳播管道並不保證資訊的準確性與可信度，反而是為了散播錯誤訊息（misinformation）或扭曲訊息（disinformation）。有時，假新聞是由國家或非國家行為者（state or non-state actors）所製造與傳播，藉由社群媒體帳號及網絡機器人來劫持諸如臉書與推特等平臺的推送演算法（Prier, 2017, p. 54）。在2016年的美國總統大選中，臉書估計有多達６千萬個機器人被用來發布政治貼文。其中，有部分機器人被用於影響隔年的法國大選（Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095）。此類行動可視為資訊戰（information warfare）的一種形式，一種對控制與影響資訊供應鏈各環節的全面嘗試，從而影響公眾輿論與行為（Prier, 2017, p. 54）。假新聞通常是由記者或內容創造者（content creators）所創造，而非試圖操弄的行為者，前者的內容偏好符合後者的敘事（Doshi, 2020）。

Nevertheless, while the term “fake news” is commonplace, there is no universal, measurable way to quantify the fakeness or truthfulness of news. There are many fact-checking and media-bias detection tools, but they cannot objectively detect and clarify the more subtle and nuanced aims of manipulative actors that play a crucial role in news production. It can also be argued that the veracity of news depends not only on the actors that seek to manipulate it, but also on the positionality of its consumers. Therefore, one’s initial line of defense against misleading news lies not in the plethora of fact-checking devices but more in one’s pre-existing dispositions and skills to think and act in response to misleading information. This ability can be referred to as critical thinking, which can be more concretely expounded as “reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 2011, p. 15).

然而，即便「假新聞」一詞隨處可見，卻沒有統一、可衡量的方式來量化新聞的虛假性或真實性。目前有許多事實查核與媒體偏見檢測工具，但它們無法客觀地檢測與說明行為操弄者更狡猾、更細緻的目標，而這些操弄者往往在新聞的生產中發揮著重要作用。我們也可以說，新聞的真實性不僅取決於試圖操弄它的行為者，同時還取決於新聞受眾的位置性。因此，一個人對抗誤導性新聞的第一道防線，不在於這些五花八門的事實查核方式，反而在於個人所固有的性格，以及針對誤導性資訊的思考與行動等相關技能。這種能力可稱為批判性思考（critical thinking），意即「專注於決定相信什麼或做什麼的理性思考與反思性思考」（Ennis, 2011, p. 15）。

Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China (ROC), is at the forefront of information warfare. It is wedged between the geopolitical struggles of global and regional hegemonies such as the United States and China, the People's Republic of China (PRC). Compounding the matter are the Taiwan’s own political actors vying for influence and power. This struggle seeps into all aspects of life and practice, mainly manifesting itself on social media, a battleground of information warfare. The Ministry of Education of Taiwan is cognizant of these information campaigns, and efforts have been made to introduce media literacy into all parts of its education system. According to the ministry, the government has tried to promote media literacy education since 2000 (MOE, 2002, p. 1), with one of its primary goals to cultivate its “citizens” abilities for independent learning, critical thinking, and problem solving” (MOE, 2002, p. 2).

臺灣，也被稱為中華民國，正處於資訊戰的最前線。這是全球霸權與地區霸權之間——如美國與中國（中華人民共和國）——的地緣政治對抗。使問題惡化的是臺灣自身的政治行動者對影響力與權力的奪取。這場對抗遍布於現實生活的各個面向，主要於社群媒體中——資訊戰的戰場——展露無遺。臺灣的教育部注意到了這些資訊的煙硝，並已努力將媒體素養引入其教育體系。據該部稱，自2000年以來，政府一直試圖推展媒體素養教育（MOE, 2002, p. 1），其主要目標之一是培養「公民獨立學習、批判性思考以及解決問題的能力。」（MOE, 2002, p. 2）。

★★★★★★★★★★★★

上述段落認為，由於個人的位置性(positionality)，「假新聞」極難定義。此外，有許多人把不符合自身成見與偏好的新聞逕斥為假新聞。這其實相當危險，因為個人觀點將會變得愈發孤立與激進。

閱聽人應意識到，他們在網路上看到的每個資訊都有特定立場。是否真有毫無立場的新聞文章？為了對抗操弄性或強制性資訊（coercive information），我們必須意識到權力於個中的作用，以及我們自身的位置性如何形塑我們的詮釋。這是我們的第一道防線。

★★★★★★★★★★★★

參考文獻

Doshi, R. (2020, January). China steps up its information war in Taiwan. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-01-09/china-steps-its-information-war-taiwan

Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational leadership, 43(2), 44-48.

Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., ... & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096.

MOE (Ministry of Education), Taiwan. (2002). White paper on media literacy educational policy. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from http://english.moe.gov.tw/public/Attachment/ 2122416591771.pdf

Prier, J. (2017). Commanding the trend: Social media as information warfare. Strategic Studies Quarterly: SSQ, 11(4), 50-85.

★★★★★★★★★★★★

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Time for qualifying, good luck Aston Martin Cognizant F1 Team🤞

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The verge article: 
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深入Facebook員工崩潰的恐怖真相

我看過一條 2013年 ‘蘋果’ 動新聞説 每日運送到堆填區的廢膠以噸計, 政府卻不扶助產業發展導致 “廢膠迫爆堆填區” 的標題. 其實2020年全球最大的堆填區是社交媒體.

像Facebook每日上載超過3.5億張照片, Youtube每日上載超過四十三萬小時的影片內容.

可想像到這個人類 ‘推填區’ 有幾多個 ‘膠’ 啦.

大家好又是我暗網仔, 今日我們第一集的 ‘你不知道的事’ 系列會分享一些普遍你不會知道, 但應該要知道的事.

上年sundance電影節出了一部名 ‘The cleaners’ 的德國記錄片講述content moderator (內容管制員) 的工作. 全天候8至10小時, Content moderator就是坐在電腦前幫一些像Facebook的平台, 是否適宜在該網站出現?

片中拍攝地點位於菲律賓馬尼拉的office. 一個個隔間著moderator在按 ‘ignore’ it means the post remains on the website和’delete’ which means the post is taken down.

合同工的moderator也希望有一日能成為該平台的正式員工. 甚至到美國工作, 但大部分也是outsource公司聘請回來的.

2017年67%的美國人口日常使用Facebook, 到2019年下降到61%的美國人口會使用Facebook. 但實質Facebook總用戶數目是有所增加的.
Facebook近年市場發展由第一世界國家擴散到剛有網絡的第三世界國家. (Show burma civil war) 一個任何人也能分享自己的地方, 其實可以看到什麼呢?
恐怖分子的血腥影片, 自殘片段, 兒童色情, 虐待動物, “ignore” “delete” 是content moderator貧貧接觸的.
2019年6月美國媒體網絡The Verge在Youtube上載了一條 ‘inside the traumatic life of a Facebook moderator’ 得到主流媒體的關注.

“The video depicts a man being Murdered. Someone is stabbing him dozens of times, while he screams and begs for his life. Chloe feels an overpowering urge to sob. She leaves the room and begins to cry so hard she has trouble breathing. No one comforts her. This is the job she was hired to do.”
目前Facebook有意將gim視影片的工作交給AI去做. 但準確性會否能和真人一樣呢? 社交媒體需要乾淨的平台讓用戶能花最長不間斷時間在該網站上. 要低成本達到這個目的需要不同國家找lim ga勞工然後迫使他們24小時不停 “ignore” “delete” 的開工.


網上資訊揭發了一些Facebook 一些恐怖的真相. I want to start by saying a disclaimer: the points from this point forward are allegations from various individuals and not empirical facts. Additional information are quotes taken from mainstream new sources.

根據Phoenix arizona州科技公司一些ex員工表示: moderator每天正常有15分鐘休息時間, 30 分鐘午飯時間, 9分鐘 “wellness time”

工作環境非常惡劣. 一間800人的公司只有一個洗手間. 可能因為工作上要看的東西的性質, 常常會有員工在後樓梯用大麻和喝酒. 性慾按耐不住在停車場性交. 上司性騷擾下sook. 而我本人的角度: 這麼一個地方跟地獄沒分別.



Over the last few weeks, we’ve seen people hurting themselves and others on Facebook— if we’re going to build a safe community, we need to respond quickly.

The cleaner記錄片的尾段講Facebook近期社會上得到的各個爭議. 但content moderator現在真正成為熱點的原因可能是緬甸現在的政治事件. New York Times指出現在該地方的內戰是軍方利用facebook去加強的. And so many people were fooled into the war.

為facebook講的是: 樹大招風. A total of 2.8 billion people use facebook. I remember when I was kid my favorite movie was the social network that talked about Mark zuckerberg creating Facebook. The initial reason he did that was because the prestigious Phoenix club at Harvard didn’t accept him. He hated them. So he made his own club, facebook. That was exclusive to him and the people he deemed fit. And I guess in some way today, facebook has now become the Phoenix club he once hated. Only now he is on top, and facebook is the most non exclusive, exclusive club in the world.

The end

Show Notes:
Finally a brand new episode! We have Brian Patrick Flynn back on the Podcast and we are talking about HGTV Dream Home 2019. If you haven’t seen it yet there is a link below so you can check it out and sign up to try and win it! It never ceases to amaze me how much thought has to go into dream home due to the broad audience that Brian is designing for, and he does a really good job of articulating just how complex it can get…and that doesn’t even touch the execution part of the build, which we also dive into. Brian is easily one of my favorite designers to chat with, and I think that is because he has a vision he wants to realize, but he is also cognizant of money and schedule, he says everything he thinks without filter, and it always makes for a great conversation. Hope you enjoy it as much as we did.

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Kyle Korver stunned almost everyone with perhaps the most thrilling 3-pointer of his career.

Korver was mobbed by his wildly celebrating teammates. Boston players sat dazed on the bench. A third overtime was on deck.

Allen Iverson simply pumped his fist, his face expressionless as if he expected it.

"Kyle hit that big shot and I was thinking, 'If he hit that shot, we've got to win it," he said.

After Korver sent the game into a third overtime, Chris Webber delivered a clutch steal and secured the Philadelphia 76ers' 125-124 victory over the Celtics on Friday night.

"It was an amazing game," Sixers coach Maurice Cheeks said.

Was it ever.

Webber had 31 points and 13 rebounds, Iverson scored 33 points with 10 assists, and Samuel Dalembert had 20 points and 11 rebounds in the Sixers' longest game since a triple OT victory over Miami on Nov. 20, 1992.

Korver added 12 points -- including his biggest 3-pointer of the season -- as the Sixers avoided dropping two games under .500 for the first time since Dec. 9.

With the Sixers ahead 125-124 and only seconds left in the third overtime, Mark Blount grabbed a defensive rebound and looked down the court for an open man, only to have Webber reach around and strip the ball.

"I was very cognizant of the fact, don't touch him," Webber said. "I saw him hold it out there. He was looking at the ref. A lot of times they'll hold the ball close to their chest and he didn't do that today."

Iverson missed two free throws -- the second intentionally -- with 2 seconds left. Delonte West's heave was off the mark, ending the drama in the 395th game between the longtime, fierce rivals.

"That was a game-saving steal," Cheeks said.

Ricky Davis scored 33 points, Blount had 27 and Paul Pierce 18 for the Celtics.

"It's tough, but it's fun," Pierce said. "It's draining, but I'm glad I had a chance to be a part of it."

Korver prolonged the drama when he buried a game-tying 3-pointer over a flailing West to end the second overtime tied at 121-all.

"I pulled up, and gave about all I had," Korver said. "It was on line, luckily."

While Iverson calmly pumped his fist, Brian Scalabrine mouthed "What are you going to do?" as the rest of the Celtics headed for the bench stunned.

Boston scored the first three points of the third overtime on a free throw and then a basket from Blount.

Over? No way.

Andre Iguodala added a driving layup and Webber gave the Sixers a 125-124 lead on two free throws. Each team only made one basket in the third overtime, fatigue perhaps finally playing a factor.

"You had guys that were exhausted out there," Cheeks said.

Davis played 57 minutes and Pierce 51 for Boston. Iverson checked in at 54 minutes, Andre Iguodala at 52 and Webber 50. The Celtics went 44-for-100 from the floor; the 76ers 41-for-99.

Each team had a chance to put away the game in the earlier overtimes.

Webber powered his way down the baseline for a layup and a 118-117 lead with 21 seconds left in the second overtime. Pierce lobbed a pass from the top of the 3-point arc to a streaking, wide-open Blount for an uncontested dunk that gave Boston a 119-118 lead with 17 seconds left in the second OT.

The Celtics appeared to have this game won until Korver did what he does best -- hit a clutch 3-pointer.

"I'd like to see the tape on that," West said. "I thought I was there. I forced him to take a tough one. That's what good shooters do."

Webber scored the first four points of the first overtime, and Davis scored six to finish the quarter tied at 109.

Oddly, the Sixers chose to play a clip from "Cheers," Boston's favorite bar, to get what was left of the sold-out crowd pumped for the second overtime.

Both Davis and Webber picked up offensively where they left off in the first OT, with Davis' three-point play matched by Webber's 3-pointer from the top of the arc.

Pierce lobbed a pass from the top of the 3-point arc to a streaking, wide-open Blount for an uncontested dunk that gave Boston a 119-118 lead with 17 seconds left in the second OT.

West -- the former Saint Joseph's star who received a warm ovation during pregame introductions -- heard nothing but boos when his 14-footer over Iverson from the right side tied the score 101-all with 51 seconds left.

Iverson missed the final shot of regulation as time expired.