[詞彙區別] constitute, compose, consist of, comprise, account for, make up 的區別

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詞彙區別: http://wp.me/p44l9b-16B

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在寫作的時候，有些同學為了避免重複使用相同的詞彙，卻選用了意義上不盡相同的詞，而無法精確地表達出自己所想傳達的想法。這問題很可能來自於考生平時在語言學習上過於依賴中英翻譯，因此在不夠了解某些詞彙精準的用法的情況下，很容易造成讀者的誤解。

為了幫助同學增加詞彙量並且精確地在口說和寫作上使用這些字，我建議同學們不要一開始的時候就死記硬背一群同義詞彙 (e.g. decline, decrease, diminish, dwindle, reduce, alleviate) 。雖然如此做會快速幫同學累積對這些詞的認知，可是認知都會停留在模糊階段。建議同學先熟悉其中一兩個單詞以後在開始累積相關的同義詞彙，也應該用搭配詞跟片語加上完整的例句和短文來輔助自己對單詞的理解。同時同學們也應該在使用這些單詞之前先查查字典，更進一步了解這些詞彙的使用方式。

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1. constitute: to constitute something is to form a whole, especially of dissimilar components: Love and hate can constitute a balanced relationship.

constitute 所“構成”的事物在屬性和特徵上，亦或在組織上，與組成成分是一致的。

-Seven days constitutes a week (七天構成一個星期。).

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2. Compose: to compose means the same as to constitute, but implies that the components have something in common: Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

在表示“由……材料構成”時，見於被動語態；在用於主動語態時，一般它所表示的“構成”或“組成”總包含著融合為一，而且主語或者是複數名詞或者是集體名詞。

-Concrete is composed of cement, sand and gravel mixed with water. (混凝土由水泥、砂、石子與水摻和而構成。 )

-Mere facts, when badly stated, do not compose a good book. (僅僅有資料，如果陳述得很糟糕，並不能組成一本好書)

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3. account for: 說明（原因、理由等）; 導致，引起; （在數量、比例上）; 占 (e.g. This group accounted for 60% of the population.)

(在數量、比例上）占

These products, in total, account for about 80％ of all our sales (這些產品總共約占我們全部銷售額的80％。).

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4. make up: 組成 to combine together to form something [= constitute]:

-Women make up only a small proportion of the prison population. 女人只佔監獄人口的一小部分。

-The committee is made up of representatives from every state (委員會由每個州的代表組成的。).

-Children makes up only 10% of the population (兒童只佔人口的10％。).

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5. consist of: to consist of something is to be made up of it: A lethal dose of nerve agent VX consists of only 10 milligrams.

consist of 的含義與被動語態的 compose 相同

-Though the costume consists only of a sheet, it was very effective. (雖然那件化裝服裝僅由一條床單組成，但效果很好。)

-This group consists of men, women, and children.
(這個小組由男人，女人和孩子們組成的。).

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6. comprise: to comprise something has the same meaning as to consist, often implying that the whole is regarded from the point of view of its individual parts: The chain is comprised of many links, and is only as strong as its weakest.

comprise 在表示“構成”時，其內涵是“包括”或“覆蓋”*

-The committee comprises men of widely different views (這個委員會由見解甚為懸殊的人組成。).

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從這些動詞的意思來看，若要表示數個個體或項目組成一個整體時，我們可用 compose 或 constitute。

England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland compose/constitute the United Kingdom.

(英格蘭、威爾斯、蘇格蘭和北愛爾蘭組成了聯合王國。)

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若要表示一個整體是由個數個體或項目所組成時，我們可用 comprise* 或 consist of / be composed of 。

(compose 經常用於被動態，而以 be composed of 的型式出現，意思和用法跟 consist of 完全一樣。)

-The United Kingdom comprises*/consists of/is composed of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.

(聯合王國是由英格蘭、威爾斯、蘇格蘭和北愛爾蘭所構成)

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詳細的說明: http://www.learnerhall.org/2012/12/consist-of-compose-contain-comprise.html

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*在這幾個字當中，僅 comprise 兼具其他字的意思，但它也是最麻煩、最讓人困擾的字。英語 評論人士強烈反對 comprise 被用作 constitute 的意思以及 comprise 以被動態形式 be comprised of 來表示 consist of 的意思，所以對於 Fifty states comprise the United States. (五十個州組成了美國) 和 The United States is comprised of fifty states. (美國是由五十個州所組成) 這樣的句子結構，他們期期以為不可，而堅持只有 The United States comprises fifty states. 才是唯一正確的用法。但他們反對的這兩種用法其實早已是不 折不扣的標準英語，一些新版的字典甚至將 be comprised of 堂而皇之地列為片語，如 The course is comprised of ten core modules. (這門課是由 10 個核心單元組成)。然而，在公說公有理，婆說婆有理，各有堅持的情況下，在此建議：若使用 comprise 會讓你覺得心虛或沒把握，那麼不妨使用它的同義詞，也就是沒有爭議的 constitute, consist of 或 be composed of 來代替之。

*An interesting history of sense development concerning the word comprise has caused confusion, if not hate for the word itself. The most common mistake is confusing consist and comprise with each other. To say A lethal dose of nerve agent VX comprises of only 10 milligrams, is wrong because it is not analyzed from each separate component or milligram, but rather as a whole dose. In fact, there is a lot of skepticism and criticism of the word “comprise” all together. “None of the many neat schemes purporting to describe its correct use seems accurately to describe the way Standard English users actually employ comprise.” (Bartleby) Thus it is suggested to use constitute and/or compose as active verbs, while consists and/or includes as passive. However, if your use of the word can clearly indicate its context, separate from the its other accepted use, choosing a substitute is not necessary.

Also, ”Comprises” is "better" grammar than ”is comprised of.” “The whole comprises multiple parts” is better than, “The whole is comprised of multiple parts.” Even better though is, “Multiple parts comprise the whole."

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Sources:
http://www.bartleby.com/68/3/1403.html
http://bulo.hjenglish.com/question/33021/
http://blog.cybertranslator.idv.tw/archives/2590
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/dictionaries/english/data/d0081813.html
http://www.learnerhall.org/2012/12/consist-of-compose-contain-comprise.html
http://everything2.com/title/consist%252C+comprise%252C+constitute%252C+or+compose

More sentences:
-The pie chart consists of/comprises of the percentages of four different fuel sources used in electricity production.

-Electricity (that is) produced with coal composed/constituted/accounted for 50% of the total electricity (that is)produced.

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contain vs. include:
Contain: Something is considered to be within something else.

The toy contains many small moving parts. ->The small moving parts are a part of the toy.

Include: Something is added to something else, possibly containing it, possibly not.

-This toy includes batteries. -> The batteries are not a part of the toy. They just come with the toy.

[時事英文] 同學，讓我們來關注巴黎氣候峰會的結論! 這高峰會關乎人類未來的氣候變化，而其中的重要的時事英文字詞，更是值得我們學習！

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時事英文詞彙和搭配詞:

think tank 智庫
call for action against…呼籲對....採取行動
non-binding commitments 非約束性的承諾
legally binding 具法律約束力的
lack of enforcement mechanisms 缺乏強制執行機制
ratify the agreement 批准該協定
pursue efforts to 為…繼續努力
summit 尖峰、最高級會議
agreement 協定，協議
accord （國家之間的）協議；條約[C][（+with/on）]
protocol 議定書；協議；草案；（尤指外交的）禮節
adopted version 通過的版本
emerging economies 新興經濟體
CO2 emissions 二氧化碳排放量
greenhouse gases 溫室氣體
climate change 氣候變化
a rise in sea levels 海平面上升
continue to rise at their current rate 以現在的速率持續上升
reduce emissions 減少排放
curb emissions 控制排放
decarbonize electricity production 脫碳電力生產
generate electricity 發電

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accord, treaty, protocol, agreement 的用法

accord 指涉的是同意、和諧、妥協、諒解的"狀態"，通常是指國家間的共識性協議。accord雖然屬於國際文件，但因未創設國際法上的權利義務，大多不具備國際法拘束力。An accord is a formal agreement between countries or groups (e.g. the Helsinki accord on human rights).

treaty 採廣義的定義是指國家之間經外交談判後依照國際法簽訂的正式條約。A treaty is a formal written agreement between two or more countries or governments. (e.g. The peace treaty ends nearly four years of violence.)

protocol 指的是一個議定書、協議、草案，通常用來表示一個公約的輔助文件，一個公約的附屬文件，或一個獨立條約的名稱。A protocol can mean the following things: A) an international agreement between two or more countries (e.g. the Montreal protocol on the protection of the ozone layer); B) a written record of a formal or international agreement, or an early form of an agreement

agreement 是協議最常用廣泛的叫法。跟treaty的定義差不多，指國際法主體間針對特定事項的條約，具有國際法效力。An agreement is an official document that people sign to show that they have agreed to something. It can be a pact, convention, or treaty between nations, sub-national entities, organizations, corporations, or other entities or persons.

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時事英文全文:

The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Conference of Parties 21 (COP 21), was held in Paris, France, from 30 November to 12 December 2015.

One hundred and ninety-six parties attended the conference and negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on the reduction of climate change. The overall goal of the agreement is to limit global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius (°C) compared to pre-industrial levels. The agreement calls for zero net man-made greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century. In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C. According to some scientists, the 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050.

The agreement will become legally binding if signed by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions. The parties will need to sign the agreement in New York between in April 2017, and also adopt it within their own legal systems.

Sources:
http://namasnthu.blogspot.tw/2011/12/copkp-platform.html
http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/
http://unfccc.int/meetings/paris_nov_2015/meeting/8926.php
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference

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時事英文: http://goo.gl/3EnOO6

環保詞彙: http://goo.gl/z7w7UO

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【搞定英文中的麻糬字】
有些字看起來很像，但用法或意思卻不一樣。很多人被這類的字一纏就纏很久，它們就像英文中一團糊糊的麻糬，吞不下去也吐不出來。
對付這類字最好的方法，是找到一個簡單原則，一次理清。

rise & raise怎麼分？
家庭用電自5月15日起上漲。
（X）Household electricity rates will raise from May 15.
（O）Household electricity rates will rise from May 15.

I need to add one more battery cell...
In this case, you can use a tin foil!
Since the tin foil has a conductivity, other batteries can conduct electricity through it.

Although the power of electricity is lower than full batteries, this is good to know in the emergent case!



あと一つ電池が足りない・・・

そんな時に使えるのがアルミホイル！
アルミホイルは通電性があるので　　
他の電池の電気を本体に通してくれるんです！　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　

パワーは電池が１個少ない状態なので弱まりますが、
緊急時にはとっても便利な知識です！