The origins of ‘fool’

Wednesday is April 1, when people in many countries worldwide celebrate the custom ( ) of “April Fool’s Day.” On this day, they play pranks ( ) on each other, the pranksters gleefully ( ) calling those hapless ( ) enough to fall for ( ) the joke an “April Fool.”

Nobody really knows for certain ( ) when, where or why the custom started. We have more certainty over the origins of the word “fool” itself, although some details remain unclear.

The word, which refers to ( ) a silly, stupid, or ignorant ( ) person, is thought to originate ( ) in the early 13th century, deriving ( ) from Old French fol, meaning a madman or insane person. The French word, in turn, comes from the Latin follis, meaning a leather bag or a bellows ( ) and, by extension later on, an empty-headed ( ) person.

Fool also referred to a rogue ( ) or a sinful ( ), wicked ( ) or lecherous ( ) person — around 1300, a “fool woman” meant a prostitute ( ), for example — and also a court ( ) jester ( ), a person whose purpose was to entertain ( ) the king and court, whether because they were pretending to be buffoonish ( ) or whether they actually were like that.

One theory is that the idea of the court jester “fool” derives from folles — the plural form of follis (bellows) — referring to the puffed cheeks of a buffoon.

It is unclear which sense came first, that of the idiot or the jester.

「愚人」的起源

下週三是四月一日，許多國家的人在這天都有過「愚人節」的慣例，互相捉弄，惡作劇的人樂不可支地把那些不幸被騙倒的人稱作「April Fool」（四月的愚人）。

沒有人能確知愚人節這習俗到底是在何時、何地或為何開始的，但我們對「fool」（傻瓜）一字的由來比較能夠掌握多，儘管有些細節仍不甚明瞭。

「fool」這個字，現今指的是傻氣、愚笨或無知的人，通常被認為是源自十三世紀初期的古法語字「fol」，意指瘋子或精神失常的人。而這個字又是源於拉丁文「follis」，意為皮製的袋子或風箱，後來引伸為腦袋空空的人。

「fool」亦指惡棍或有罪、惡毒或淫蕩的人──例如在西元一三○○年左右，「fool woman」指的是妓女，亦指弄臣，也就是在宮廷中負責娛樂國王和朝臣的人，無論這些弄臣是故意裝瘋賣傻，還是本來就如小丑般滑稽。

有一說則是認為，「fool」字的「弄臣」之意，是源於「folles」──即「follis」（風箱的拉丁文複數形）──指的是小丑鼓脹的臉頰。
「fool」一字是先有「傻子」之意，還是先有「弄臣」之意，我們並不清楚。

#高雄人 #學習英文 請找 #多益達人林立英文
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#EZTALK #你不知道的美國大小事
#coronavirus

America starts to open up—but is it ready?
🇺🇸美國開始解除封城，但，真的準備好了嗎？👀

許多國家的肺炎疫情已逐漸趨緩，因此美國日前陸續宣布解禁，但是這樣子解禁是否言之過早？
進入文章之前，先看看單字～

1. toll「傷亡；損失」：death toll「死亡人數」，而economic toll就是「經濟損失」。
2. staggering「令人咋舌的，驚人的」
3. criterion「標準，準則」：複數型比較特別，是criteria。
4. downward「朝下地」：字尾 -ward有「朝向～、往～」的意思。
5. trajectory「軌跡」：指將物體拋出去之後的軌跡。
6. legally binding「有法律約束力的」：bind當動詞，指「綑綁」，所以binding的意思延伸為「有約束力的」。
7. peak「達到高峰」：peak在這裡當動詞，也可當名詞，指「最高點，高峰」。
8. plateaue「穩定，停滯」：一樣在這裡當動詞。
9. (Only) time will tell.「唯有時間能證明。」：指某件事情的真相只能等真正發生之後才能知道。

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In the United States, the coronavirus pandemic has resulted in a huge death toll. Over 76,000 deaths have been recorded as of May 8, and the total is expected to reach 100,000 by the end of the month. But the virus has taken a huge economic toll as well. The unemployment rate has risen to a staggering 14.7 percent, the highest since the Great Depression of the 1930s. And then there’s the emotional toll. After months of social distancing, people are lonely, depressed and desperate to see their friends and loved ones.
新冠病毒疫情在美國造成大量死亡。到5月8日為止，死亡人數超過7萬六千名，預計這個月底會攀升到十萬人。這個病毒也引發大量經濟損失；失業率攀升到驚人的14.7百分比，是1930年代經濟大蕭條以來的最高記錄。除此之外，人們的心理創傷也到達頂點。在經過數月的社交隔離，大家因無法跟朋友與親人見面而感到孤單、憂鬱甚至絕望。

Worried that mass unemployment may eventually cause more loss of life than the coronavirus, the federal government has made the decision to begin reopen the economy and let people return to work. The White House hopes that states will only reopen their economies if they meet the following criteria: (A) a “downward trajectory” in new coronavirus cases over a 14-day period; (B) an upward trend in testing and contact tracing. These criteria aren’t legally binding, however, and in many of the states that are opening up, case numbers are still rising.
出於擔心高失業率所導致的死亡人數將多過病毒所直接引發的死亡人數，聯邦政府日前決定重啟經濟，讓民眾返回職場。白宮表示，各州如果能滿足以下標準，就能解除封城：（A）病毒感染案例連續超過14天持續下降。（B）採檢與追蹤感染案例持續上升。不過這些標準不具法律強制效果，而許多陸續放鬆解禁的州，該地的疫情依然攀升中。

In Missouri, for example, where the number of new positive cases is still growing, businesses will be allowed to open again this week, and people will be allowed to attend concerts—as long as people stay at least six feet apart. But is this a wise decision? Although the outbreak has either peaked or plateaued in most of the country, the vast majority of the population hasn’t been infected yet, and has no immunity. Some experts worry that opening up too quickly could lead to a second wave of infections in the fall. The decision of when to open up is a difficult one to make for each state, and only time will tell if their decision was correct.
以密蘇里州為例，新感染人數持續攀升，同時商業活動也將在本週開放，人們將可以參加演唱會，只要人與人之間距離拉開至少6尺。但這是個明智的決定嗎？雖然美國多數地區的疫情已達到高峰或出現平緩，絕大多數人口尚未被感染，因此缺乏免疫力。部分專家擔憂，太早解除封城會導致秋天第二波疫情爆發。決定解除封城的時間是各州政府頭痛的問題，只有時間才能告訴我們這個決定是否正確。

[時事英文] Trees can talk!
　
今天是地球日，讓我們了解一下我們的星球吧。太神奇了，我從來不知道樹有可以跟彼此溝通的網路，而且竟然是透過真菌！最神奇的是，樹還能透過這個系統幫助彼此，甚至排擠不受歡迎的植物。
　
在閱讀的同時也享受一下森林的照片，來深呼吸！
　
Forest Sounds：https://youtu.be/d0tU18Ybcvk?t=280
　
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《ＢＢＣ報導》：
　
It's an information superhighway that speeds up interactions between a large, diverse population of individuals. It allows individuals who may be widely separated to communicate and help each other out. But it also allows them to commit new forms of crime.
　
1. the information superhighway 資訊高速公路
2. speed up（使）加速；提高（……的）速度
3. diverse 多種多樣的
4. help each other out 互相幫助
5. commit a crime 犯罪
　
這是一條資訊高速公路，可使龐大且多元的族群互動加速。這讓相距甚遠的個體得以交流並相互協助。但這也使它們犯下新的罪行。
　
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No, we're not talking about the internet, we're talking about fungi. While mushrooms might be the most familiar part of a fungus, most of their bodies are made up of a mass of thin threads, known as a mycelium. We now know that these threads act as a kind of underground internet, linking the roots of different plants. That tree in your garden is probably hooked up to a bush several metres away, thanks to mycelia.
　
6. fungus 真菌*
7. mycelium 菌絲體
8. A be made up of B Ａ是由Ｂ組成的**
9. act as 充當；起⋯⋯作用
10. be hooked up to 連接
11. thanks to sb/sth 幸虧；由於
　
不，我們不是在說網際網路，我們說的是真菌。儘管蘑菇可能是真菌中最為人熟知的部分，但它們的主體大部分是由許多被稱為菌絲體的細絲所組成。如今，我們知道這些細絲就像地下網路，聯繫著不同植物的根。得益於菌絲體，你花園中的那棵樹可能已與幾公尺外的灌木叢相連了。
　
*「fungus」為單數名詞，其複數形在英式英文中作「fungi」，在美式英文中則為「funguses」。詳參《劍橋詞典》：https://bit.ly/3cRxoTt
　
**在「A be made up of B」中，Ｂ通常為複數，表示Ａ是由許多Ｂ所組成，如「This group is made up of 40 girls.」。而「A be made of B」則為「Ａ是由Ｂ製成的」，意即物理變化，在製作過程中原料的本質不變，可以從成品Ａ中辨認出原料Ｂ，例如：「木椅」顯然是由「木頭」製成的——「This chair is made of wood.」。
　
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The more we learn about these underground networks, the more our ideas about plants have to change. They aren't just sitting there quietly growing. By linking to the fungal network they can help out their neighbours by sharing nutrients and information – or sabotage unwelcome plants by spreading toxic chemicals through the network. This "wood wide web", it turns out, even has its own version of cybercrime.
　
12. the more…the more… 愈⋯⋯愈⋯⋯
13. nutrient 養分
14. sabotage 蓄意破壞
15. toxic chemical 毒性化學物質
16. it turns out 原來；結果表明
17. cybercrime 網路犯罪
18. wood wide web 森林資訊網*
　
我們愈瞭解這些地下網路，便愈需改變對植物的想法。它們並不只是靜靜地坐在那裡長大。透過真菌網路的連接，它們可藉由共享營養與資訊來幫助它們的鄰居——或者利用此一網路來散播毒性化學物質以破壞不受歡迎的植物。原來這種「森林資訊網」甚至有它們自己的網路犯罪版本。
　
*由於網址總以「World Wide Web」（全球資訊網）的縮寫「www」開頭，作者遂以「wood wide web」為諧音，來形容植物間的溝通網路。
　
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It has taken decades to piece together what the fungal internet can do. Back in 1997, Suzanne Simard of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver found one of the first pieces of evidence. She showed that Douglas fir and paper birch trees can transfer carbon between them via mycelia. Others have since shown that plants can exchange nitrogen and phosphorus as well, by the same route. Simard now believes large trees help out small, younger ones using the fungal internet. Without this help, she thinks many seedlings wouldn't survive.
　
19. piece together 拼湊
20. Douglas Fir 黃杉（道格拉斯冷杉）
21. Paper Birch 美洲樺（紙皮樺）
22. nitrogen 氮
23. phosphorus 磷
24. by the same route 藉由相同的途徑
25. seedling 幼苗；苗木
　
拼湊真菌網路的作用已花費數十年。１９９７年，溫哥華英屬哥倫比亞大學的蘇珊・西馬德發現了首要證據的其中之一。她證明黃杉與紙皮樺可藉由彼此間的菌絲體轉移碳。此後，其他人證明了植物亦可以相同途徑交換氮和磷。西馬德現在認為，大樹可以真菌網路幫助年紀較輕的小樹木。她認為，沒有這種幫助，許多幼苗或將無法生存。
　
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Another report suggests that tomato plants can 'eavesdrop' on defense responses and increase their disease resistance against potential pathogen. So not only do the mycorrhizae allow plants to share food, they help them defend themselves. It's not just tomatoes that do this. Broad beans also use fungal networks to pick up on impending threats – in this case, hungry aphids. It was found that broad bean seedlings that were not themselves under attack by aphids, but were connected to those that were via fungal mycelia, activated their anti-aphid chemical defenses. Those without mycelia did not.
　
26. eavesdrop on 竊聽
27. defense response 防禦機制
28. disease resistance 抗病性；抗病力
29. pathogen 病原體
30. mycorrhizae 菌根（複數）；mycorrhiza 菌根（單數）
31. broad beans 蠶豆
32. pick up on 注意到（他人未注意到的事物）
33. an impending threat 迫近的威脅
34. aphid 蚜蟲
35. under attack 遭受攻擊
36. chemical defense 化學防禦
　
另一份報告顯示，番茄植物可以「竊聽」防禦機制，並增強它們對潛在病原體的抗病力。因此，菌根不僅可使植物共享食物，還可幫助它們保護自己。不是只有番茄能做到這點。蠶豆也會利用真菌網路來探知即將來臨的威脅——在此一情況下，是飢餓的蚜蟲。蠶豆幼苗本身並不會受蚜蟲攻擊，但藉由真菌的菌絲體與受到襲擊的蠶豆相連接，則會啟動其抗蚜蟲的化學防禦。那些沒有菌絲體的植物並無此一機制。
　
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But just like the human internet, the fungal internet has a dark side. Our internet undermines privacy and facilitates serious crime – and frequently, allows computer viruses to spread. In the same way, plants' fungal connections mean they are never truly alone, and that malevolent neighbours can harm them. For one thing, some plants steal from each other using the internet. Some of these plants, such as the phantom orchid, “steal” the carbon they need from nearby trees, via the mycelia of fungi that both are connected to.
　
37. have a dark side 有黑暗的一面
38. undermine 損害
39. facilitate 促使
40. in the same way 同樣地
41. never truly alone 從未真正獨自一人
42. malevolent 有惡意的；歹毒的
43. for one thing 首先；一方面
44. steal from 偷竊
45. the phantom orchid 雪蘭（幻影蘭花）
　
但就像人類的網路，真菌的網路也有黑暗的一面。我們的網際網路破壞了隱私並助長了嚴重的犯罪——使電腦病毒經常得以傳播。同樣地，植物間的真菌連結意味著它們並非形單影隻，因此歹毒的鄰居便可傷害它們。一方面，一些植物透過網路相互偷竊。其中如雪蘭，藉由連接彼此的真菌菌絲體從鄰近樹木「竊取」自身所需的碳。
　
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Overall, these fungal networks make communication between plants, including those of different species, faster, and more effective. We don't think about it because we can usually only see what is above ground. But most of the plants you can see are connected below ground, not directly through their roots but via their mycelial connections.
　
46. overall 總體而言
47. fungal networks 真菌網
　
總體而言，這些真菌的網路使植物（包括那些不同種類的植物）之間的通訊更快、更有效率。我們沒想過，因為通常我們只能看見地面上的東西。但多數你可見的植物並非逕由根部而是透過菌絲體的聯繫在地底下相互連接。
　
《ＢＢＣ報導》： https://bbc.in/2zCsLOR
　
圖片出處：之前在溪頭和阿里山拍的 🙂
　
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我們的星球是不是超棒的！下次可以試著跟樹木說話。
　
Video：https://youtu.be/yWOqeyPIVRo
　
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CLIL（Content and Language Integrated Learning）是將學科內容和外語學習相結合，用外語教授科學、地理、歷史、藝術等內容，從而促進語言和學科知識的雙重學習：http://bit.ly/2K5l3PM
　
CLIL英文詞彙——Math：https://bit.ly/2YdERbc
　
Earth Day 2019：https://bit.ly/2ShSjY4