關於 #學習動作 的三大迷思:
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一. 忘記這項動作怎麼做了，你是真的「忘記」還是害怕想起來?

「#動作學習是永久的一種改變。」
動作學習可定義為經由練習或經驗而導致永久之動作技能的改變過程。學習過程中包含個人、任務、環境等三方面互動的結果，而需要感知、認知、行動等系統的複雜處理過程來共同解決任務難題。在動作學習過程中，神經突觸也會發生改變，因此動作學習引起的是相當永久的一種內在狀態的改變。
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二. 怎麼練都練不起來，難道我就廢?

心理學家艾瑞克森在「刻意練習」一書裡提到: 「任何人都可能進步，不過得用對方法，停滯不前並非因為缺乏天分，而是練習的方法錯了。」，由此可知遺傳學的作用並沒有我們想像的那麼強大。以莫扎特為例，幾乎任何人都會認為他是一位音樂天才，艾瑞克森則指出莫扎特並不是與生俱來就有如此高的音樂造詣，而是因為他從很小的時候就開始了漫長而又艱苦的練習。
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三. 關於動作學習，練越多次越好?

「#練習次數必須足夠，#動作技巧才能改善。」

想要知道動作技巧有沒有隨著練習次數的增加而改善，可以選擇一個可量化的結果，例如完成一個動作所需要的時間越來越短，就表示這個動作的動作技巧越來越好。

心理學家艾瑞克森所寫的「刻意練習」一書中，他觀察了西洋棋、音樂、醫學領域和運動等等領域的學習者，發現若要成為「頂尖專家」，必須經過一萬個小時的刻意練習，因此馬爾科姆·格拉德威爾在「異類：不一樣的成功啟示錄」一書中，將一萬小時看作是一個「神奇數字」，因為他提出這是一個人想要在一項技能上達到專家水平所需要投入的時間。而出現了「一萬個小時定律」這樣的說法。但並不是每個人都需要成為某個領域或是動作的專家，很多的訓練動作其實只需要短短的幾個小時練習就會有非常好的成果，例如在診間中給予病患的運動處方，通常在十幾分鐘的「刻意練習」之後，也都會有令人滿意的進步。

「#踏出舊有的訓練舒適圈，#去刻意練習。」

根據Fitts和Posner的動作分期學說，當我們學習一項陌生的動作時，可分為: 認知期、半自動期(連結期)和自動期。

#認知期:

需要花費心力去了解動作的細節，在練習動作時，速度不宜太快，重點在於完成動作的細節，例如硬舉時，能不能維持好胸廓和骨盆的穩定，能不能控制好髖部的動作且同時維持膝蓋的穩定性。
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#半自動期(連結期):

這時完成動作的注意力需求降低，練習動作時的速度提高，可以同時注意更多細節，例如硬舉時的呼吸策略、手抓握的方式、肩胛骨的下壓內收和足底三角的穩定性。
另外，在練習動作一段時間後，會發現某些訓練方式肌肉的感受度很棒且訓練效果很好，某些方式則差強人意，因此我們會把這些動作的方式和結果連結起來，來得到最佳的動作策略，也因此每個人的最佳硬舉方式都不盡相同。
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#自動期:

這時完成動作變的自然，不需在做動作前花很多心力去注意動作細節，便可以以幾乎半自動的方式就可以完成動作，而且動作的精確度也是三期中最高的。
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隨著練習的次數增加，不只所需的注意力變少，還可同時完成其他任務，譬如剛練習騎自行車時，一開始需要訓練平衡感和注意路況，隨著練習次數增加，可以在騎行同時拿水壺喝水並調整不同的騎乘姿勢來面對不同的環境。並進而開始練習踩踏頻率、控制踩踏強度和配速，如果只是單純的練習騎車，則終究無法晉升成選手。因此「練習次數」和「練習方式」同樣重要。
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另外我們的動作表現也和荷爾蒙有關，當我們主動想學習這項動作時，會因為腦內多巴胺的分泌，所以動作表現也會較好，相反的，當我們被動的學習動作時，則會因為壓力荷爾蒙(皮質醇)的分泌增加，使得動作表現較差。

#動作學習
#動作表現
#刻意練習

Apple CEO tells college graduates: ‘We’ve failed you’
蘋果CEO給大學畢業生的致詞

蘋果執行長庫克(Tim Cook)於5月18日應邀至杜蘭大學(Tulane Univeristy)做畢業典禮演講(Commencement Speech)，內容是鼓勵畢業生處理困難的問題，有勇氣嘗試找出解決問題的方法，並以20年前的親身經驗告訴年輕學子，為何當年從前途似錦的科技業巨擘康柏公司(Compaq)，投入前途黯淡的蘋果公司。

杜蘭大學是位於紐奧良的研究型私立大學，有「南方常春藤」之稱，以下摘錄庫克的演講內容：

∎ Life will always find lots of ways to tell you no, that you can't, that you shouldn't, that you'd be better off if you didn't try. But New Orleans teaches us there is nothing more beautiful or more worthwhile than trying.
人生總會用很多方式告訴你，這個不可以、那個做不到、你不應該這麼做，或是你最好連試都別試。但紐奧良教導我們，沒什麼比嘗試更美妙，更有價值。

∎ For me, it was that search for greater purpose that brought me to Apple in the first place. I had a comfortable job at a company called Compaq that at the time looked like it was going to be on top forever.
對我來說，當初就是為了尋找更大的目的，才讓我來到蘋果。我原本在康柏的工作很舒服，而且那時康柏看來將永遠處於顛峰。

∎ As it turns out, most of you are probably too young to even remember its name. But in 1998, Steve Jobs convinced me to leave Compaq behind to join a company that was on the verge of bankruptcy.
你們大多數人可能都太年輕，不記得康柏的名字，但在1998年，賈伯斯說服了我離開康柏，加入一家處於破產邊緣的公司。

∎ They made computers, but at that moment at least, people weren't interested in buying them. Steve had a plan to change things. And I wanted to be a part of it.
他們生產電腦，但至少那時大家沒什麼興趣買電腦。賈伯斯想要改變這個局面，而我想參與其中。

∎ It wasn't just about the iMac, or the iPod, or everything that came after. It was about the values that brought these inventions to life.
這不只攸關iMac或iPod，或之後問世的所有東西，而是關於把這些創新真正做出來的價值。

∎ The idea that putting powerful tools in the hands of everyday people helps unleash creativity and move humanity forward. That we can build things that help us imagine a better world and then make it real.
這個想法是將強大工具放到一般人的手中，釋放出創造力，推動人類前進；也就是我們可以打造的東西，能讓我們想像出更美好的世界，再實現這個夢想。

∎ Try something. You may succeed. You may fail. But make it your life's work to remake the world because there is nothing more beautiful or more worthwhile than working to leave something better for humanity.
去多多嘗試，你可能成功，也可能失敗，但要把改造世界變成你的人生目標，努力留下任何東西讓人類更好，沒有什麼比這麼做更美妙、更值得。

以下是演講內容全文：
Hello Tulane! Thank you, President Fitts, Provost Forman, distinguished ( ) faculty ( ), other faculty [laughs], and the entire Tulane family, including the workers, ushers ( ), [and] volunteers who prepared this beautiful space. And I feel duty-bound ( ) to also recognize the hard-working bartenders at The Boot. Though they’re not here with us this morning, I’m sure some of you are reflecting on their contributions as well. [The Boot is a popular college bar right next to Tulane’s campus which has been around for decades.]

And just as many of you have New Orleans in your veins ( ), and perhaps your livers, some of us at Apple have New Orleans in our blood as well. When I was a student at Auburn, the Big Easy was our favorite getaway ( ). It’s amazing how quickly those 363 miles fly by when you’re driving toward a weekend of beignets and beer. And how slowly they go in the opposite direction. Apple’s own Lisa Jackson is a proud Tulane alum ( ). Yes. She brought the Green Wave all the way to Cupertino where she heads our environment and public policy work. We’re thrilled to have her talent and leadership on our team.

OK, enough about us. Let’s talk about you. At moments like this, it always humbles me to watch a community come together to teach, mentor ( ), advise, and finally say with one voice, congratulations to the class of 2019!

Now there’s another very important group: your family and friends. The people who, more than anyone else, loved, supported, and even sacrificed ( ) greatly to help you reach this moment. Let’s give them a round of applause ( ). This will be my first piece of advice. You might not appreciate until much later in your life how much this moment means to them. Or how that bond of obligation ( ), love, and duty between you matters more than anything else.

In fact, that’s what I really want to talk to you about today. In a world where we obsessively ( ) document our own lives, most of us don’t pay nearly enough attention to what we owe one another. Now, this isn’t just about calling your parents more, although I’m sure they’d be grateful if you did that. It’s about recognizing that human civilization began when we realized that we could do more together. That the threats and danger outside the flickering firelight got smaller when we got bigger. And that we could create more — more prosperity ( ), more beauty, more wisdom, and a better life — when we acknowledge certain shared truths and acted collectively.

Maybe I’m biased ( ), but I’ve always thought the South, and the Gulf Coast in particular ( ), have hung on to ( ) this wisdom better than most. [Tim Cook grew up in Robertsdale, Alabama, which is about an hour from New Orleans and is similarly close to the Gulf of Mexico.] In this part of the country, your neighbors check up on you if they haven’t heard from you in a while. Good news travels fast because your victories are their victories too. And you can’t make it through someone’s front door before they offer you a home-cooked meal.

Maybe you haven’t thought about it very much, but these values have informed your Tulane education too. Just look at the motto ( ): not for one’s self, but for one’s own. You’ve been fortunate to live, learn, and grow in a city where human currents blend into ( ) something magical and unexpected. Where unmatched beauty, natural beauty, literary beauty, musical beauty, cultural beauty, seem to spring ( ) unexpectedly from the bayou. The people of New Orleans use two tools to build this city: the unlikely and the impossible. Wherever you go, don’t forget the lessons of this place. Life will always find lots of ways to tell you no, that you can’t, that you shouldn’t, that you’d be better off if you didn’t try. But New Orleans teaches us there is nothing more beautiful or more worthwhile than trying. Especially when we do it not in the service of one’s self, but one’s own.

For me, it was that search for greater purpose that brought me to Apple in the first place. I had a comfortable job at a company called Compaq that at the time looked like it was going to be on top forever. As it turns out, most of you are probably too young to even remember its name. But in 1998, Steve Jobs convinced me to leave Compaq behind to join a company that was on the verge of bankruptcy. They made computers, but at that moment at least, people weren’t interested in buying them. Steve had a plan to change things. And I wanted to be a part of it.

It wasn’t just about the iMac, or the iPod, or everything that came after. It was about the values that brought these inventions to life. The idea that putting powerful tools in the hands of everyday people helps unleash creativity and move humanity forward. That we can build things that help us imagine a better world and then make it real.

There’s a saying that if you do what you love, you’ll never work a day in your life. At Apple, I learned that’s a total crock ( ). You’ll work harder than you ever thought possible, but the tools will feel light in your hands. As you go out into the world, don’t waste time on problems that have been solved. Don’t get hung up on what other people say is practical. Instead, steer ( ) your ship into the choppy ( ) seas. Look for the rough spots, the problems that seem too big, the complexities ( ) that other people are content to work around. It’s in those places that you will find your purpose. It’s there that you can make your greatest contribution. Whatever you do, don’t make the mistake of being too cautious. Don’t assume that by staying put, the ground won’t move beneath your feet. The status quo ( ) simply won’t last. So get to work on building something better.

In some important ways, my generation has failed you in this regard ( ). We spent too much time debating. We’ve been too focused on the fight and not focused enough on progress. And you don’t need to look far to find an example of that failure. Here today, in this very place, in an arena where thousands once found desperate shelter ( ) from a 100-year disaster, the kind that seem to be happening more and more frequently, I don’t think we can talk about who we are as people and what we owe to one another without talking about climate change.

[applause] Thank you. Thank you.

This problem doesn’t get any easier based on whose side wins or loses an election. It’s about who has won life’s lottery and has the luxury of ignoring this issue and who stands to lose everything. The coastal communities, including some right here in Louisiana, that are already making plans to leave behind the places they’ve called home for generations and head for higher ground. The fishermen whose nets come up empty. The wildlife preserves ( ) with less wildlife to preserve. The marginalized ( ), for whom a natural disaster can mean enduring poverty.

Just ask Tulane’s own Molly Keogh, who’s getting her Ph.D. this weekend. Her important new research shows that rising sea levels are devastating ( ) areas of Southern Louisiana more dramatically than anyone expected. Tulane graduates, these are people’s homes. Their livelihoods ( ). The land where their grandparents were born, lived, and died.

When we talk about climate change or any issue with human costs, and there are many, I challenge you to look for those who have the most to lose and find the real, true empathy ( ) that comes from something shared. That is really what we owe one another. When you do that, the political noise dies down, and you can feel your feet firmly planted on solid ground. After all, we don’t build monuments ( ) to trolls ( ), and we’re not going to start now.

If you find yourself spending more time fighting than getting to work, stop and ask yourself who benefits from all the chaos. There are some who would like you to believe that the only way that you can be strong is by bulldozing ( ) those who disagree or never giving them a chance to say their peace in the first place. That the only way you can build your own accomplishments is by tearing down ( ) the other side.

We forget sometimes that our preexisting beliefs have their own force of gravity ( ). Today, certain algorithms ( ) pull toward you the things you already know, believe, or like, and they push away everything else. Push back. It shouldn’t be this way. But in 2019, opening your eyes and seeing things in a new way can be a revolutionary act. Summon the courage not just to hear but to listen. Not just to act, but to act together.

It can sometimes feel like the odds ( ) are stacked ( ) against you, that it isn’t worth it, that the critics are too persistent and the problems are too great. But the solutions to our problems begin on a human scale with building a shared understanding of the work ahead and with undertaking it together. At the very least, we owe it to each other to try.

It’s worked before. In 1932, the American economy was in a free-fall ( ). Twelve million people were unemployed, and conventional ( ) wisdom said the only thing to do was to ride it out, wait, and hope that things would turn around ( ). But the governor ( ) of New York, a rising star named Franklin Roosevelt, refused to wait. He challenged the status quo and called for action ( ). He needed people to stop their rosy ( ) thinking, face the facts, pull together ( ), and help themselves out of a jam. He said: “The country demands bold, persistent experimentation. It is common sense to take a method and try it. If it fails, admit it and try another. But above all, try something.”
This was a speech to college students fearful ( ) about their future in an uncertain world. He said: “Yours is not the task of making your way in the world, but the task of remaking the world.” The audacious ( ) empathy of young people, the spirit that says we should live not just for ourselves, but for our own. That’s the way forward. From climate change to immigration, from criminal justice reform to economic opportunity, be motivated by your duty to build a better world. Young people have changed the course of history time and time again. And now it’s time to change it once more.

I know, I know the urgency of that truth is with you today. Feel big because no one can make you feel strong. Feel brave because the challenges we face are great but you are greater. And feel grateful because someone sacrificed to make this moment possible for you. You have clear eyes and a long life to use them. And here in this stadium, I can feel your courage.

Call upon your grit ( ). Try something. You may succeed. You may fail. But make it your life’s work to remake the world because there is nothing more beautiful or more worthwhile than working to leave something better for humanity.

Thank you very much, and congratulations class of 2019!

#高雄人 #學習英文 請找 #多益達人林立英文
#高中英文
#成人英文
#多益家教班
#商用英文

【深夜有點專業文】
人體最強的肌肉在哪裡？是在大腿嗎？是在小腿嗎？還是在手臂上？其實根據不同的標準，可能答案都不太一樣，而且也許是出乎我們想像之外的。人體的肌肉根據型態與功能的不同，區分為三類，包含骨骼肌、平滑肌與心肌。可以經由意識控制，又稱為「隨意肌」的，是屬於我們的骨骼肌，簡單來說，就是(大部分)連接著骨骼的肌肉，這些骨骼肌經由肌腱連接骨頭，有些則是連接在筋膜或腱膜上，這群肌肉的肌纖維由肌節(Sacromere)組成，在顯微鏡下面可看見明暗相間的橫紋。平滑肌一般組成內臟器官，而心肌則組成心臟，這兩群肌肉屬於不隨意肌，意即我們無法經由意識控制，因此先不對心肌與平滑肌多做討論，這裡的「肌肉」主要以我們可以控制的骨骼肌為主。

一般來說，如果肌肉長的越大塊，肌纖維就會越多，可以產生的總體力量就會越多，這是一個很客觀的總量概念。但是如果真正來看我們的人體，會有很多複雜的因素交互影響，導致事實的真相並沒有這麼簡單。我們先來想一個例子，有個人很有錢但沒有把錢拿出來花，另一個人則是沒錢花。這兩個人表面上都是沒有花錢，但是背後沒有花錢的原因不一樣。如果我們希望增加消費振興經濟，針對那些真的沒錢花的人，可能可以給予補貼或是消費券什麼的，但是對那些有錢但不花的人，給他們再多的消費券也無法解決問題，因為真正的問題不是沒錢，而是沒有去花錢。因此對於這些人，想出某些方式讓他們去花錢，才是真正的解法。基本上肌肉的使用也可以這樣去想，如果我們的問題，是有些動作感覺「無力」，其實要去分析到底是真的肌肉衰弱(true weakness)、肌纖維不足造成可以產生的力量小，還是其實是人體沒有去把這塊肌肉發揮出來？假若是真正肌肉衰弱，那麼做肌力或增肌訓練，是沒有問題的，因為有對症下藥。但是如果肌肉本身沒有真正肌肉衰弱，一直去做肌力或增肌訓練，那就等於給一個已經有錢但不願花的人更多的錢是一樣的意思，錢越來越多當然沒有不好，錦上添花嘛，但是有對症下藥嗎？沒有。
所以重點來了，第一件事，我們應該要找出哪些肌肉是真的衰弱(沒錢的)，哪一些是沒有被發揮出來的(有錢沒花的)。第二件事，針對不同的問題，給予不同的介入方式。
Ok，讓我們再想深入一點。有句話說，錢可以解決的事都不是困難的事，沒錢的人給他錢，沒有肌纖維的肌肉就做肌力訓練讓他長起來，所以這是個改變「硬體」就可以完成的事情。但是那些不願意花錢的人，我們則是要去改變他的想法、他的意願，這可是跟他的「腦」有關的，相信看過全面啟動的人都很清楚，要改變「想法」是多麽困難的一件事。訓練那些大腦沒有選擇去啟動、或所謂在一整群協同肌中應該使用比例佔較多的肌肉，是個需要改變「軟體」才能完成的事情。而事實的真相是，可以改變「軟體」的，我們叫做動作控制訓練(motor control training)。動作控制訓練，改變的不是肌纖維的數量、改變的不是肌肉的型態，它改變的是肌肉的效能(efficient)，肌肉被徵召(recruitment)的難易度，改變的是在動作中，每塊肌肉在肌群中的最佳作用比例。這絕對不會是僅做肌力訓練可以完成的，而且過去的學者曾使用肌電圖(EMG)發現，如果狂做肌力訓練，不僅無法改善肌肉的徵召，反而更加惡化。可惜這個實驗並沒有真正被研究發表出來，因為實驗方法(method)是對人體有害風險的方式。(這可不是我說的，有上過KC的人都會懂)
Ok，那讓我們從這麼深的地方浮起來一點。所謂真正肌肉衰弱(true weakness)的，是哪些人呀？傳統所謂的肌力測試(對，就是那些年我們學過的MMT)可以測出來嗎？現行的說法是說可以，但這是真的嗎？我們要小心一件事情，MMT對於每一條肌肉有標準測試擺位，通常是把肌肉擺在mid-range中間範圍(反正就介在肌肉拉到最長跟收到最短的中間)，然後做等長收縮(isometric contraction)。所以傳統MMT測的其實是「肌肉/群在中等長度之下做等長收縮表現得好不好」的能力，它並沒有測到向心收縮的能力、沒有測到離心收縮的能力、沒有測到肌肉在離開中等長度之後的收縮能力。甚至這些臨床上方便用的測量方式，其實都只是讓我們去懷疑「肌肉可能衰弱」，因為除非我們去算每一條內含的肌纖維，才會知道肌肉是不是真的true weakness。除非把人解剖了，不然這哪有可能。所以讓我們換個方式想，什麼原因會讓肌肉衰弱肌纖維減少？如果你在外太空，那「缺乏重力」會是一個原因，有研究指出，太空人長期待在外太空(約大於或等於180天)，小腿的比目魚肌及腓腸肌的大小會明顯下降(Fitts et al. 2010)。如果你在地球上，那「不動」會是一個原因。英文有個專有名詞叫做immobilize，意思有固定之意，當一個人躺在床上不動35天，股外側肌橫斷面積有明顯減少現象(Brocca et al., 2012)。這樣的研究還有很多篇，在此不一一贅述，總結起來，躺的要夠久，基本上要大於等於兩週(Bodine, 2013)，學者們可以保證你的肌群一定產生true weakness唷。
Ok，讓我們浮出水面，回想一下，有哪位還可以走進來找我們的病人/客戶符合這種情形？
這樣懂我的意思了嗎？
我再次重申，我不是說肌力訓練不好不需要，而是不要把肌力訓練當作唯一解答。回答我們的客戶之前，停看聽一下，不再反射性地說「覺得沒力就是因為肌力不夠，所以要練肌力。」我們會開始發現世界很美好，可以解決問題的方式還有很多。
至於執行上要怎麼練，還有很多故事可以講，我們就期待下回吧。
TBC

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